"Chinese Imperial Porcelain from the Qianlong Period, 18th century."

The cargo of Imperial porcelain from Ka Mao.The cargo from a ship that sank around 1725 off the coast of the Vietnamese Ca Mao peninsula was raised in 1998-99 by a Vietnamese state company. A large-scale marine archaeological expedition gathered a wealth of unique information. This discovery became a significant milestone in the effort to create a comprehensive picture of maritime trade in Asia in the 17th century.It became clear that the ship, measuring 23 by 8 meters, was heading southeast when a fire broke out and the ship sank. The main cargo on board was magnificent porcelain from the finest kilns in China. Some items bear multiple distinctive marks of the Qing Emperor Yongzheng, who ruled between 1723 and 1735. Most of the finds are stored in museums in Vietnam. A small portion was secretly sold on the local market, and a significant portion was auctioned at Sotheby’s in Amsterdam by the Government of Vietnam.All the discovered items form a unified complex; thus, if the exact dating of at least one item can be determined, the entire cargo can be dated.The transportation of Chinese porcelain during the Yongzheng period was primarily carried out by Chinese merchants, whose junks traveled to the Philippines, the Indonesian archipelago, and the coasts of Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia. Present-day Jakarta, Batavia, located on the island of Java, was an important center for the distribution of porcelain. The Dutch East India Company had its branches in this city, attracting trade from all over Asia. Batavia also served as a departure point for ships heading to the Netherlands. It was here that the porcelain was either sent to Holland or directed to other places, such as Islamic markets in India and Iran.In the early 18th century, the tea ceremony became extremely fashionable in Europe. China was the main supplier of tea to European countries.In European capitals, special tea houses are emerging. It turns out that a special kind of tableware is necessary for this new fashionable ceremony. At that time, porcelain was not yet available in Europe; it would arrive a little later. Employees of East India companies, who conduct trade operations with China, come up with the idea of bringing tea porcelain along with the tea. Enormous quantities of porcelain, needed to satisfy the colossal demand for it since it became fashionable in Europe, were transported from southern China to Batavia on Chinese junks. The ship that sank near Ka Mao was headed to Batavia, and most of its cargo was destined for the Netherlands. The remarkable finds from the ship—set of dishes depicting landscapes in a Western style—allow us to infer this. This design is known as the "Scheveningen pattern," named after a village of the same name near The Hague in the Netherlands. The presence of these dishes on the ship suggests that a significant portion of the porcelain cargo was intended for Batavia, as it was mainly the Dutch who valued such specific items, known as "chine de command" (custom-made porcelain). The connection to the Netherlands is also evidenced by two beer mugs, the shape and pattern of which are based on the traditional Dutch Delft style. Brush holders, spoons, and saucers with lead glaze, incense burners, vases, and items decorated in blue and copper-red colors and glazed likely catered to communities of Chinese expatriates in Batavia or elsewhere in the East. Charming figurines of people, animals, and small boats could be sold anywhere. The finds from Ka Mao raise intriguing questions about style. Part of the cargo looks exactly like the porcelain of the Yongzheng era should have looked. These are tea sets with patterns of pavilions and blooming plants, painted in blue and covered with glaze. Or other sets with typical Yongzheng era patterns depicting...a specific type of dishware. The landscape features a willow tree and a boy riding a buffalo in blue underglaze. Many items have decoration referred to as "typical Hangxi painting." This includes borders made of lotuses or a band of pomegranates filled with flowers along the bottom. A characteristic feature of ceramic ware from the Hangxi period, around 1700, is the technique of underglaze cobalt painting, which can be seen on some tea cups. Another mystery is represented by dishes with a pattern reminiscent of the once-popular Dutch kraak porcelain, which was supplanted by other design styles. Items with such patterns have always been regarded as some of the earliest and most typical examples of porcelain made to order for the Dutch market, dating to the early XVIII century. A group of items, consisting of bowls, incense burners, and jars, decorated with blue underglaze copper-red paint featuring pine trees, blossoming plums, and landscapes, is associated with production during the Hangxi era. Stylistically, the characteristics of part of the cargo correspond fully to the style of the Hangxi period. Another portion of the cargo can be dated to a later period of the Hangxi era, around 1700-1720. Scholars have concluded that the ship set sail after 1723, when Yongzheng became the successor to Hangxi. Jingdezhen, a center for porcelain production for centuries, consisted of hundreds of small workshops that produced and decorated porcelain. The most advanced of these workshops produced porcelain for the imperial court, setting the standard for quality, form, and design for smaller workshops. Those producing porcelain for export had to ensure their goods were appealing to foreign clients. They often made special items to order and did not produce goods for the local market. There was extreme specialization, with one workshop focusing solely on teapots for export, while another...cups and saucers. It can be assumed that, being small and specialized, such workshops were not the first followers of the fashionable trends in decorating porcelain that were promoted by larger and more significant factories. It is quite possible that they continued to work in the same way they had for years, gradually adapting to new trends and themes in painting. This also explains the different styles in the decorations of the cargo from Ca Mau: some items were made by workshops that had already switched to new patterns of the Yongzheng era, while others were produced by workshops that continued to work in the style of the late Kangxi era. One can hypothesize that over a couple of years, the differences between these two styles were leveled out, and in the field of export, a new fashionable style prevailed, replacing the traditional decorations and patterns of the Kangxi era. If we accept this hypothesis as a basis, then the fact that the cargo from Ca Mau contains such a diverse set of items transported together may indicate that all these items were produced in the early Yongzheng period, i.e., around 1725, since cargo from a later period would be less diverse and would contain more items in the style of the Yongzheng era. In conclusion, it can be said that the cargo from Ca Mau consists of Chinese porcelain produced in the most famous kilns of Jingdezhen, Dehua, and Guangzhou, and dates back to the reign of Emperor Yongzheng (1723-1735). This porcelain was highly valued by buyers both in Southeast Asia and in Europe. Some items were made specifically to order with European motifs to meet the demand for porcelain tea sets in Europe. **The *Ca Mau* Porcelain Cargo** The *Ca Mau* shipwreck was salvaged in 1998/9 by the Vietnam Salvage Company (Visal) off the coast of Ca Mau Province in...southern Vietnam after two fishermen discovered Chinese porcelain artifacts in the area. A comprehensive maritime archaeological expedition provided a wealth of unique information. It was evident that the vessel, measuring approximately 23 by 8 meters, was traveling southeast when it caught fire and sank. Unfortunately, most of the timber had decayed, and the remaining fragments were insufficient to definitively establish the origin of the ship. In total, about 130,000 pieces of porcelain were recovered from the site, indicating that porcelain was the primary cargo. Some pieces bear the four or six-character mark of the Qing emperor Yongzheng, who reigned from 1723 to 1735. This provides an **ante quem** date for these items: they could not have been made before 1723, when Yongzheng succeeded his father, Emperor Kangxi, who ruled from 1662 to 1722. In addition to porcelain, a small number of other objects were found: a lamp shaped like a lotus flower, a basin, a lampshade, a covered box, and a lock with its matching key, all made of bronze; some copper coins from the Kangxi era; a bone hairpin; fragments of textiles including a small bundle of silk; an oval stone talisman with a carved tiger’s head; a rectangular black inkstone; a rectangular stone tablet; two soapstone seals; and the remains of many iron woks. Blocks of stone and 386 zinc ingots weighing between 15 and 18 kilograms served as ballast. Most of the finds are preserved in Vietnamese museums, including the unique pieces. A small portion was secretly sold locally, while a significant amount, representing nearly all types and varieties found in the shipwreck, is currently being auctioned by Sotheby’s Amsterdam on behalf of the Vietnamese government. Like every shipwreck, the **Ca Mau** should be seen as a time capsule rich with information, enabling maritime archaeologists and historians to reconstruct its historical context. The ship and its contents constitute a...Here's the translated text: "sealed entity, affected only by its long immersion in the sea. All objects recovered belonged together when the ship sank, and if only one piece can be dated with certainty, the whole cargo can be dated. To this end, we have several pieces of porcelain bearing the Yongzheng mark. The nature of the porcelain cargo – which will be discussed in the following paragraphs – allows us to state that it is unlikely that the shipment took place after Yongzheng’s death in 1735. This cargo was thus shipped during Yongzheng’s reign. The *Ca Mau* is no exception to other shipwrecks in that its porcelain cargo also offers many surprises, poses new questions, and shatters some well-established opinions about stylistic developments and the production of Chinese export ware. Let us first see what the cargo tells us about the destination of the ship and the markets for which the porcelain was intended. It is remarkable that all additional finds such as the seals and the bronze objects indicate that the ship’s crew was Asian, not European. The transport of Chinese porcelain in the Yongzheng period was undertaken almost exclusively by Chinese merchants, their junks plying the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos and the coasts of Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia. Batavia, present-day Jakarta, on the island of Java, was an important market and distribution center for porcelain. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) had its administrative and commercial headquarters in this city, attracting merchandise from all over Asia. Batavia functioned partly as a pivot for further inter-Asian trade and partly as the point of departure for ships returning to the Netherlands. Here porcelain was either transferred to Dutch and other ships supplying Islamic markets in India, Indonesia, and Iran, or became part of cargoes destined for Europe. Contrary to what has generally been assumed, the VOC did not participate in the porcelain trade to Europe during the first..." (Note: The last sentence is cut off in the original text you provided. If you provide the rest, I can continue the translation.)Here is the translation of the text into English: "st quarter of the eighteenth century. The Company ceased buying Chinese porcelain in the 1690s because it had become unprofitable, leaving the supply of the Dutch market to private merchants who shipped porcelain from Batavia to the Netherlands on Company ships and who obviously took full advantage of this privileged position. They were fiercely competitive, flooding the Netherlands – and hence western Europe – with huge and greatly varied quantities of underglaze-blue and polychrome porcelain of excellent quality. The porcelain cargo of the *Vung Tau* shipwreck, also salvaged off the coast of Vietnam and dating to the 1690s, testifies to the early phase of these private investments in the porcelain trade. The enormous quantities needed to meet the huge demand after porcelain became fashionable in Europe were transported from southern China to Batavia by Chinese junks. Occasionally, Dutchmen and other Westerners may have privately joined the Chinese crew, but certainly no VOC ships sailed to China in the early eighteenth century to buy porcelain in Canton or Amoy. It was much more convenient to order an assortment, even porcelain with special decorations, through a Chinese junk captain, who would relay the order to the porcelain workshops at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province and wait until the objects were delivered to Batavia. All risk in this procedure was borne by the Chinese; the Dutch paid no transport costs, and competition kept prices low. The VOC only resumed its trade in porcelain in 1729 when it started sailing directly from the Netherlands to Canton and back, thereby undermining the junk trade to Batavia. How do we know that the *Ca Mau* was destined for Batavia and that a major part of the cargo was for the Netherlands? One surprising find from the shipwreck is a series of dishes of different sizes, decorated in underglaze blue with a landscape in Western style (lots XX–XX). We see a hilly foreground with fence posts..."A tree, two people walking while wearing hats, and another man with a cow on a leash. In the background, there is a square building on a hill, a church tower, the roofs of houses, and in the center, sails of ships. Curiously shaped clouds with curlicue outlines float in the air. The flat rim is painted monochrome blue with a continuous pattern of waves around the edge. This decoration, known as the ‘Scheveningen design’ after the coastal village of that name near The Hague in the Netherlands, depicts sand dunes, a beacon to warn approaching ships, the village itself, and the sails of ships in the harbor. Japanese porcelain dishes with this design, made in Arita for the Dutch around 1700 or slightly later, are known. Japanese porcelain painters used a Dutch print or a piece of Delft faience as a model, and apparently, these ‘Scheveningen’ dishes were so popular that Chinese potters copied them to compete with the Japanese. Such Chinese copies were already known, but their presence in the *Ca Mau* makes it likely that these dishes, and therefore most of the porcelain cargo, were destined for Batavia because only the Dutch would appreciate such specific *chine de commande* pieces. There is another, similar Japanese connection to the *Ca Mau* cargo, namely a couple of dishes decorated in underglaze blue, with the center featuring branches with large leaves and fruit, and the rim divided into wide and narrow panels containing flowers and auspicious symbols or a geometric pattern (lot XX). Here too, the Chinese potters competitively copied a well-known Japanese type traditionally produced for the Dutch. Final proof of a Dutch connection—and thus Batavia as the destination of the *Ca Mau*—is provided by the tall beer mugs with handles, decorated in blue with a so-called lambrequin border around the foot and neck. The shapes and decorations of these beer mugs are based on Dutch Delftware models decorated with this lambrequin pattern.derived from the Chinese *ru-yi* (cloud) motif. The cargo was thus destined for Batavia, but not all porcelain was to be trans-shipped to the Netherlands. Smaller consignments were clearly for other markets: the kendis (lot XX), ewers (lot XX), and the deep, conical bowls with a decoration of lotus in blue would have appealed to Islamic clients. The covered round boxes (lots XX–XX), the relatively coarse bowls with blue decoration of scrollwork and flowers (lots XX–XX), and the small covered cylindrical pots (lots XX–XX) would have been suitable merchandise for the Indonesian Islands. Brush rests (lot XX), ladles, and dishes with a lead glaze and impressed designs (lots XX–XX), incense burners (lot XX), the celadons (lots XX–XX), and possibly the pieces decorated in underglaze blue and copper red (lots XX–XX) were probably destined for expatriate Chinese communities in Batavia and elsewhere in the East. The charming figures of men, animals, and boats (lots XX–XX) could be sold everywhere. The *Ca Mau* raises intriguing questions about stylistic development. Part of the cargo conforms exactly to established concepts of what porcelain from the Yongzheng period should look like. Tea sets, for instance, have a fine and detailed decoration of a pavilion with a fence and a jar with flowering plants on the terrace, originally painted in underglaze blue and enamels. Due to the long immersion in seawater, the enamelled decoration has disappeared, and the imprint is only visible when viewing the object from a specific angle (lots XX–XX). Other tea sets with a Yongzheng-type decoration show a landscape with a willow and a boy riding a buffalo in underglaze blue (lots XX–XX). These sets consist of cups and saucers, tea caddies, teapots, and milk jugs with matching *pattipans* (saucers to put them on). Some cups have handles; the tea caddies have a foot with a tendril-scroll in relief. Several other types of teacups and saucers...The text describes various decorative styles and motifs found on porcelain pieces, particularly from the Yongzheng and Kangxi periods. Here’s the translated version in English: Cups and saucers, which are not part of a set, are adorned with landscapes or river scenes featuring buildings, or individuals engaged in a range of activities. Other cups and saucers illustrate scenes from the highly popular romance "The Western Chamber," or depict a strolling Immortal. These figural scenes cover nearly the entire surface and are framed by a narrow border. Some Yongzheng-style dishes and plates showcase designs of flowering plants next to a rock or a fence, or a bird perched on a rock, occupying the center, complemented by borders of extensive floral sprays or blossoming branches. Many pieces, however, exhibit decorations referred to as ‘typical Kangxi.’ One characteristic feature, for instance, includes a border made up of lotus or pomegranate-shaped panels created in low relief, filled with flowers, or a border featuring separate small panels on a dense geometric patterned background. The decoration in the center of other Kangxi-style pieces is arranged around a central roundel, with radiating panels both at the center and on the sides. Numerous variations of these panel designs, typical of the Kangxi period, are found in the Ca Mau cargo. Another notable trait of Kangxi wares from around 1700 is the painting technique in underglaze cobalt blue, which was not achieved through washes, but rather with parallel lines filling in the contours; one can see this, for example, in the floral patterns on small covered jars or some teapots. Another mystery is presented by dishes showcasing designs reminiscent of kraak porcelain from the first half of the seventeenth century. The center features a star-shaped panel with flowering plants, surrounded by semi-circular panels with geometric patterns, while the border is divided into wide and narrow panels filled with flowers and symbols. Once highly favored in the Netherlands, it is believed that this kraak pattern experienced a brief revival around 1700, only to be soon overshadowed by other designs. The same holds true for the motif of the bird on the ‘haystack’ found on cups and saucers.XX). It depicts a house with a structure on either side of it where a bird is perched. A flowering plant floats above the building; the border features a continuous pattern of linked leaves. It has always been regarded as an early and typical example of *chine de commande* for the Dutch market, dating back to the early eighteenth century. Furthermore, the entire group of bowls, incense burners, and jars decorated in underglaze blue and copper red with pine trees, blossoming prunus, and landscapes is usually associated with Kangxi production, as are the bowls covered with streaks of green and yellow glaze, referred to as ‘egg and spinach.’ The figures, water droppers, and incense holders shaped like animals and mostly enamelled on the biscuit (unglazed) surface also traditionally have a strong Kangxi connotation. How can we explain this discrepancy in styles? The stylistic characteristics of part of the cargo conform exactly to the style of the Yongzheng period, but another part we would like to date to the later Kangxi period of 1700–20. Nonetheless, we have concluded that the cargo was shipped after 1723 when Yongzheng had taken over from Kangxi. The number of Kangxi-style pieces is too large to be incidental – they constitute roughly half the cargo. This leaves us with two possible scenarios, neither of which can be proven due to the lack of documentation. The first is the assumption that the *Ca Mau* cargo partly consisted of leftovers that had been stored by porcelain merchants in southern China for ten or twenty years. I find this an unlikely hypothesis and not in line with normal practices in the porcelain trade. There was a great demand for porcelain in the West, competition was fierce, and any remnants from specially ordered assortments would most likely have been sold to other parties as soon as possible. Piles of unsold porcelain would have taken up storage space, been prone to damage, and contradict the way Ch...Chinese merchants did business. The other possibility I suggest here has to do with the organization of porcelain production. Jingdezhen, for centuries the center of porcelain production in the northern part of Jiangxi Province, comprised hundreds – if not thousands – of small, privately-owned workshops where porcelain was made and painted. Foremost were the workshops that produced for the Imperial Court; these set the standards for quality, shape, and decoration that ultimately served as models for lesser workshops. Workshops producing for export had to make porcelain that appealed to foreign clients and often created special pieces to order, while also not manufacturing objects for the domestic market. It seems that extreme specialization took place, whereby one workshop only made teapots for export, while another only made cups and saucers. Decorations, applied in the same workshop where the pieces were made or in a separate painter’s workshop, may have been similarly specialized. The output of these workshops was fired in large kilns, where space could be bought from the owners. The manufacturers or the owners did not distribute the final product themselves but used licensed brokers who made deals with the Chinese porcelain merchants who placed the orders. Being small and specialized, it is conceivable that workshops making export wares were not the first to follow the decoration fashions introduced by the larger, more important factories. It is quite possible that they continued as they had for years, only slowly adapting to new styles and new subjects in painting when their product became really old-fashioned and merchants and brokers complained. This would explain the different styles of decoration in the *Ca Mau* cargo – some was made by workshops that had already shifted to the new Yongzheng modes, while some was produced by workshops that continued producing the late Kangxi styles. It may be assumed that within a coupleOver the years, the differences between the two styles diminished, and modern fashions took over in the realm of export wares, replacing the traditional Kangxi decorations and patterns. If this is correct—though the above is merely an undocumented hypothesis—then the fact that the *Ca Mau* cargo contains such a varied assortment of items, all loaded and transported together, could suggest that these porcelain pieces were all produced early in the Yongzheng period, around 1725. A later cargo would likely have been less varied and would have contained more pieces in the Yongzheng style. In conclusion, the *Ca Mau* cargo presents a wide variety of beautiful pieces intended for different markets. It raises some intriguing questions and significantly enhances our understanding of the inter-Asian porcelain trade during the Yongzheng period. Professor Dr. Christiaan J.A. Jörg (1944) is a former curator of the Groninger Museum in Groningen and is a professor of East-West interactions in decorative art at Leiden University. He lectures extensively and has been widely published on Chinese and Japanese export porcelain and lacquer.